Thursday, March 20, 2008

Energy balance

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Energy balance has the following meanings in several fields:

  • In physics, energy balance is a systematic presentation of energy flows and transformations in a system. Theoretical basis for an energy balance is the first law of thermodynamics according to which energy cannot be created or destroyed, only modified in form. Energy sources or wave of energy are therefore inputs and outputs of the system under observation.
  • In biology, total body energy balance is measured with the following equation: Energy intake = internal heat produced + external work + energy storage. The Dynamic Energy Budget theory makes explicit use of energy, mass and time balances. One Calorie (or kilogram calorie) equals the energy needed to increase the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1 °C. This is about 4.184 kJ.
  • In energy economics, the energy balance of a country is an aggregate presentation of all human activities related to energy, except for natural and biological processes. National energy balances are compiled on at least an annual basis. Common methodology for compilation and presentation of energy balances allows simple addition of national energy balances to form supranational ones, such as is compiled for the European Union. United Nations compile energy balances for all member countries. International Energy Agency, a specialised agency of OECD is regularly preparing world energy balances.
  • In engineering, energy balances are used to quantify the energy used or produced by a system. This can be used to build complex differential equation models to design and analyze real systems. To make an energy balance for a system is very similar to making a Mass balance but there are a few differences to remember, e.g. 1) that a specific system might be closed in a mass balance sense, but open as far as the energy balance is concerned and 2) that while it is possible to have more than one mass balance for a system there can be only one energy balance. If a balance is made for total energy, the energy balance becomes IN=OUT+ACC (where ACC stands for accumulation). Notice that there is no production (PROD) term since energy can not be produced, only converted. If instead some kinds of energy are ignored, e.g. if a heat balance is made the energy balance becomes IN+PROD=OUT+ACC (if heat is consumed the PROD term is negative, compare Mass balance.
  • When comparing fuel production, energy balance is the difference between the energy produced by 1 kg of the fuel (i.e. biodiesel, petroleum, uranium ) and the energy necessary to produce it (extraction (e.g. drilling or cultivation of energetic plants), transportation, refining etc). Other factors affect fuel selection, such as portability. See also net energy gain and EROEI.
In geography, specifically climatology and hydrology, the "'energy balance'" refers to the total of all energy inputs and outputs at any location; these include solar, atmospheric transfer, and ground conducted energy.

Ethanol fuel in Brazil

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Brazil’s 29-year-old ethanol fuel program uses cheap sugar cane, mainly bagasse (cane-waste) for process heat and power, and modern equipment, and provides a ~22% ethanol blend used nationwide, plus 100% hydrous ethanol for four million cars. The Brazilian ethanol program provided nearly 700,000 jobs in 2003, and cut 1975–2002 oil imports by a cumulative undiscounted total of US$50 billion.[1] Today, Brazil gets more than 30% of its automobile fuels from sugar cane-based ethanol.[2]

The Brazilian government provided three important initial drivers for the ethanol industry: guaranteed purchases by the state-owned oil company Petrobras, low-interest loans for agro-industrial ethanol firms, and fixed gasoline and ethanol prices where hydrous ethanol sold for 59% of the government-set gasoline price at the pump. These pump-primers have made ethanol production competitive yet unsubsidized.[1]

In recent years, the Brazilian untaxed retail price of hydrous ethanol has been lower than that of gasoline per gallon.[1] Approximately US$50 million has recently been allocated for research and projects focused on advancing the obtention of ethanol from sugarcane in São Paulo.[3]

Contents

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[edit] The National Program for Alcohol

With the 1973 oil crisis, the Brazilian government, then run by the general Ernesto Geisel, initiated in 1975 the Pró-Álcool program.

The Pró-Álcool or Programa Nacional do Álcool (National Alcohol Program) was a nation-wide program financed by the government to phase out all automobile fuels derived from fossil fuels (such as gasoline) in favour of ethanol. It began with the anhydrous alcohol to blend with the gasoline. This mixture has been used since then and is now done with 24% of alcohol and 76% gasoline (commonly known as gasohol). The program successfully reduced by 10 million the number of cars running on gasoline in Brazil, thereby reducing the country's dependence on oil imports. The decision to produce ethanol from fermented sugarcane was based on the low cost of sugar at the time. Other sources of fermentable carbohydrates were tested such as the manioc. Sales of alcohol-only cars tumbled after an alcohol shortage coupled with low gas prices in the late 1980s to early 1990s. [4]

Ethanol Cars Manufacturing in Brazil
Year Ethanol Cars
Manufactured
Total Cars
Manufactured
% Ethanol Cars
1979 3,328 912,018 0.4
1980 239,251 933,152 25.6
1986 619,854 815,152 76.0
1990 71,523 663,084 10.8
1998 1,188 1,254,016 0.1
2002 48,022 1,521,431 3.2
Source: Brazilian Automakers Association, 2003. [3],[4]

[edit] Electricity from Bagaço

Sucrose accounts for little more than 30% of the chemical energy stored in the mature plant; 35% is in the leaves and stem tips, which are left in the fields during harvest, and 35% are in the fibrous material (bagasse) left over from pressing.

Part of the bagasse is currently burned at the mill to provide heat for distillation and electricity to run the machinery. This allows ethanol plants to be energetically self-sufficient and even sell surplus electricity to utilities; current production is 600 MW for self-use and 100 MW for sale. This secondary activity is expected to boom now that utilities have been induced to pay "fair price "(about US$10/GJ or US$0.036/kWh) for 10 year contracts. This is approximately half of what the World Bank considers the reference price for investing in similar projects (see below). The energy is especially valuable to utilities because it is produced mainly in the dry season when hydroelectric dams are running low. Estimates of potential power generation from bagasse range from 1,000 to 9,000 MW, depending on technology. Higher estimates assume gasification of biomass, replacement of current low-pressure steam boilers and turbines by high-pressure ones, and use of harvest trash currently left behind in the fields. For comparison, Brazil's Angra I nuclear plant generates 657 MW.

Presently, it is economically viable to extract about 288 MJ of electricity from the residues of one tonne of sugarcane, of which about 180 MJ are used in the plant itself. Thus a medium-size distillery processing 1 million tonnes of sugarcane per year could sell about 5 MW of surplus electricity. At current prices, it would earn US$ 18 million from sugar and ethanol sales, and about US$ 1 million from surplus electricity sales. With advanced boiler and turbine technology, the electricity yield could be increased to 648 MJ per tonne of sugarcane, but current electricity prices do not justify the necessary investment. (According to one report, the World bank would only finance investments in bagasse power generation if the price were at least US$19/GJ or US$0.068/kWh.)

Bagasse burning is environmentally friendly compared to other fuels like oil and coal. Its ash content is only 2.5% (against 30-50% of coal), and it contains no sulfur. Since it burns at relatively low temperatures, it produces little nitrous oxides. Moreover, bagasse is being sold for use as a fuel (replacing heavy fuel oil) in various industries, including citrus juice concentrate, vegetable oil, ceramics, and tyre recycling. The state of São Paulo alone used 2 million tonnes, saving about US$ 35 million in fuel oil imports.

Researchers working with cellulosic ethanol are trying to make the extraction of ethanol from sugarcane bagasse and other plants viable on an industrial scale.

[edit] Program statistics

Except where noted, the following data apply to the 2003/2004 season.

land use: 45,000 km² in 2000
labour: 1 million jobs (50% farming, 50% processing)
sugarcane: 344 million metric tonnes (50% sugar, 50% alcohol)
sugar: 23 million tonnes (30% is exported)
ethanol: 14 million m³ (7.5 anhydrous, 6.5 hydrated; 2.4% is exported)
dry bagasse: 50 million tonnes
electricity: 1350 MW (1200 for self use, 150 sold to utilities) in 2001

The labour figures are industry estimates, and do not take into account the loss of jobs due to replacement of other crops by sugarcane

[edit] Effect on oil consumption

Most cars in Brazil run either on alcohol or on gasohol; only recently dual-fuel ("Flex-Fuel") of ethanol and the ethanol/gasohol ratio are expected to increase again with deployment of dual-fuel cars.

Presently the use of ethanol as fuel by Brazilian cars - as pure ethanol and in gasohol - replaces gasoline at the rate of about 27,000 cubic metres per day, or about 40% of the fuel that would be needed to run the fleet on gasoline alone. However, the effect on the country's overall oil use was much smaller than that: domestic oil consumption still far outweighs ethanol consumption (in 2005, Brazil consumed 2,000,000 barrels of oil per day, versus 280,000 barrels of ethanol)[5]. Although Brazil is a major oil producer and now exports gasoline (19,000 m³/day), it still must import oil because of internal demand for other oil byproducts, chiefly diesel fuel (which cannot be easily replaced by ethanol).

According to government statistics Brazil produced 17.471 billion litres of ethanol in 2006. For 2007 Wagner Rossi, president of Companhia Nacional de Abastecimento, expects a production growth of 21.9%, bringing the total ethanol production to 21.298 billion litres.[6]

[edit] Comparison with the United States

Brazil's sugar cane-based industry is far more efficient than the U.S. maize-based industry. Brazilian distillers are able to produce ethanol for 22 cents per liter, compared with the 30 cents per liter for corn-based ethanol.[7] Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical or subtropical climate, with a minimum of 600 mm (24 in) of annual rainfall. Sugarcane is one of the most efficient photosynthesizers in the plant kingdom, able to convert up to 2% of incident solar energy into biomass. Ethanol is produced by yeast fermentation of the sugar extracted from sugar cane. Sugarcane production in the United States occurs in Florida, Louisiana, Hawaii, and Texas. In prime growing regions, such as Hawaii, sugarcane can produce 20 kg for each square meter exposed to the sun.

U.S. corn-derived ethanol costs 30% more because the corn starch must first be converted to sugar before being distilled into alcohol. Unfortunately, despite this cost differential in production, in contrast to Japan and Sweden, the U.S. does not import Brazilian ethanol because of strict U.S. trade barriers (tariffs) corresponding to a levy of a 54-cent per gallon – a levy designed to offset the 51-cent per gallon blender's federal tax credit that is applied to ethanol no matter its country of origin.[8] These are promoted by the powerful American sugar lobby, which does not want a competitor to high-fructose corn syrup, and domestic sugar interests.[citation needed] The United States and Brazil lead the industrial world in global ethanol production. On March 9, 2007 Ethanol diplomacy was the focus of President Bush's Latin American tour, in which he and Brazil's president, Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, agreed to share technology. The Brazilian sugar cane trade agreements permit various Central American (Colombia, Costa Rica, and Panama), Caribbean, and various Andean Countries tarrif-free trade thanks to concessionary trade agreements.

[edit] Environmental effects

Sugar cane plant (Saccharum officinarum).
Sugar cane plant (Saccharum officinarum).

The improvement in air quality in big cities in the 1980s, following the widespread use of ethanol as car fuel, was widely evident; as was the degradation that followed the partial return to gasoline in the 1990s.

However, the ethanol program was not perfect and brought a host of environmental and social problems of its own. Sugarcane fields were traditionally burned just before harvest, in order to remove the leaves, kill any snakes and fertilize the fields with ash. The smoke produced each season produces the same amount of carbon pollution as the sugarcane would have produced if it were left in the field to rot, which is relatively little. However, the smoke greatly impacts the sugarcane-growing parts of the country, turning the sky gray and air hazardous throughout the harvesting season. As winds carry the smoke into nearby towns, air pollution goes critical and respiratory problems soar. This practice has been decreasing of late, due to pressure from the public and health authorities. In Brazil, a recent law has been created in order to ban the burning of sugarcane fields, and machines will replace human labor as the means of harvesting cane. This not only solves the problem of pollution from burning fields, but new machines also have a higher productivity than people.[citation needed]

Many nations have produced alcohol fuel with limited destruction to the environment. Advancements in fertilizers and natural pesticides have all but eliminated the need to burn fields, however chemical pollution from runoff may turn out to be just as harmful to the environment as the smoke. To ensure long-term viability for Brazil’s ethanol fuel industry, growers must be focused on sustainability rather than short-term productivity.[citation needed]

Other criticism focused on the potential for rain forests to be cleared for sugarcane crop production. Silva claims this will not happen: "The Portuguese discovered a long time ago that the Amazon isn't a place to plant cane."[9]

[edit] Social implications

Sugarcane has an important social contribution to the poorest people in Brazil. Although it still improves little the life conditions of this segment of Brazilian society, specially in comparison to Industrialized countries living standards, having a temporary work at Sugarcane harvest fields is, for many, the only option to survive.

There has been a great amount of harvest automation though, specially in the richest and more mature Sugarcane producers of São Paulo state, thus dismissing hundreds of labor workers in place of air-conditioned Sugcarcane harvesting trucks. This has sparked other States in Brazil, where lack of job positions and social issues amount much further, to give incentives to coming Sugarcane producers as long as they employ Harvest workers instead of implementing less labor intensive and more modern techniques.

Some question the viabiliy of biofuels like ethanol as total replacements for gasoline/crude oil. One concern is that sugarcane cultivation will displace other crops, thus causing food shortages. However, these concerns seem to be groundless. Despite having the world's largest sugarcane crop, the 45,000 km² Brazil currently devotes to sugarcane production amount to only about one-half of one percent of its total land area of some 8.5 million km². In addition, the country has more unused potential cropland than any other nation. Some commentators, like George Monbiot, fear that the marketplace will convert crops to fuel for the rich, while the poor starve and biofuels cause environmental problems. It is unclear how this would be different from the current situation, as most food crops are grown and exported to richer nations, and neglects the very real environmental problems that the burning of fossil fuels causes. The cultivation of sugarcane for energy production is only likely to increase as fossil fuels become increasingly scarce and more expensive.[citation needed]

[edit] Exports of Brazilian ethanol

  • The exportation of Brazilian ethanol to the U.S. reached a total of US$ 1 billion in 2006, an increase of 1020% over 2005 (US$ 98 millions). [10].
  • The U.S., potentially the largest market for the Brazilian ethanol, currently imposes trade restrictions on Brazilian ethanol in order to encourage domestic ethanol production, most of which has so far been based on processing corn instead of sugar cane or soybeans, which is much less efficient. There is concern that allowing the Brazilian ethanol to enter the U.S. market without taxation will undercut the budding ethanol industry in the United States[11]. One of the arguments for that is that Brazil currently subsidises its ethanol production, which is false, as the subsidies program finished in the 1990s[12]. Others argue that rather than impose trade restrictions on the import of the Brazilian product, that the U.S. should make subsidies of its own available to support its fledgling domestic producers.
  • Sweden also has a large import from Brazil due to its 5% use of ethanol in all of its fuels[13].

[edit] See also

[edit] References

[edit] External links

Ethanol fuel energy balance

Ethanol fuel energy balance

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
Energy balance [1]
Country Type Energy balance
US Corn ethanol 1.3
Brazil Cane ethanol 8
Germany Biodiesel 2.5
no current production Cellulosic ethanol †2–36

† depending on production method

All biomass needs to go through some of these steps: it needs to be grown, collected, dried, fermented, and burned. All of these steps require resources and an infrastructure. The total amount of energy input into the process compared to the energy released by burning the resulting ethanol fuel is known as the ethanol fuel energy balance and studied as part of the wider field of energy economics. Figures compiled in a 2007 National Geographic Magazine article [1] point to modest results for corn ethanol produced in the US: it takes 1 unit of fossil-fuel energy to create 1.3 energy units of corn ethanol energy. The energy balance for cane ethanol produced in Brazil is favorable. Over the years, however, many reports have been produced with contradicting energy balance estimates.

Contents

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[edit] Energy balance reports

In 1995 the USDA released a report stating that the net energy balance of corn ethanol in the United States was an average of 1.24. It was previously considered to have a negative net energy balance. However, due to increases in corn crop yield and more efficient farming practices corn ethanol had gained energy efficiency [2]

Opponents of corn ethanol production in the U.S. often quote the 2005 paper [3] of David Pimentel, a retired Entomologist, and Tadeusz Patzek, a Geological Engineer from Berkeley. Both have been exceptionally critical of ethanol and other biofuels. Their studies contend that ethanol, and biofuels in general, are "energy negative", meaning they take more energy to produce than is contained in the final product.

A 2006 article [4] in Science offers the consensus opinion that fuels like ethanol are energy positive. Furthermore, it should be pointed out that fossil fuels also require significant energy inputs which have seldom been accounted for in the past.

It is also important to note that ethanol is not the only product created during production, and the energy content of the by-products must also be considered. Corn is typically 66% starch and the remaining 33% is not fermented. This unfermented component is called distillers grain, which is high in fats and proteins, and makes good animal feed. [5]

Back in 2000, Dr. Michael Wang, of Argonne National Laboratory, wrote that these ethanol by-products are the most contentious issue in evaluating the energy balance of ethanol. He wrote that Pimentel assumes that corn ethanol entirely replaces gasoline and so the quantity of by-products is too large for the market to absorb, and they become waste. At lower quantities of production, Wang finds it appropriate to credit corn ethanol based on the input energy requirement of the feed product or good that the ethanol by-product displaces.[6] In 2004, a USDA report found that co-products accounting made the difference between energy ratios of 1.06 and 1.67[7]. In 2006, MIT researcher Tiffany Groode came to similar conclusions about the co-product issue.[8]

In Brazil where sugar cane is used, the yield is higher, and conversion to ethanol is somewhat more energy efficient than corn. Recent developments with cellulosic ethanol production may improve yields even further.[9]

In 2006 a study from the University of Minnesota found that corn-grain ethanol produced 1.25 units of energy per unit put in.[10]

A 2008 study by the University of Nebraska found a 5.4 energy balance for ethanol derived specifically from switchgrass [11] [12]. This estimate is better than in previous studies and according to the authors partly due to the larger size of the field trial (3-9 ha) on 10 farms.

[edit] Variables

According to DoE, [13] to evaluate the net energy of ethanol four variables must be considered:

  1. the amount of energy contained in the final ethanol product
  2. the amount of energy directly consumed to make the ethanol (such as the diesel used in tractors)
  3. the quality of the resulting ethanol compared to the quality of refined gasoline
  4. the energy indirectly consumed (in order to make the ethanol processing plant, etc).

Much of the current academic discussion regarding ethanol currently revolves around issues of system borders. This refers to how complete of a picture is drawn for energy inputs. There is debate on whether to include items like the energy required to feed the people tending and processing the corn, to erect and repair farm fences, even the amount of energy a tractor represents.

In addition, there is no consensus on what sort of value to give the rest of the corn (such as the stalk), commonly known as the 'coproduct.' Some studies leave it on the field to protect the soil from erosion and to add organic matter, while others take and burn the coproduct to power the ethanol plant, but do not address the resulting soil erosion (which would require energy in the form of fertilizer to replace). Depending on the ethanol study you read, net energy returns vary from .7-1.5 units of ethanol per unit of fossil fuel energy consumed. For comparison, that same one unit of fossil fuel invested in oil and gas extraction (in the lower 48 States) will yield 15 units of gasoline, a yield an order of magnitude better than current ethanol production technologies, ignoring the energy quality arguments above and the fact that the gain (14 units) is not carbon neutral. [14]

In this regard, geography is the decisive factor. In tropical regions with abundant water and land resources, such as Brazil and Colombia, the viability of production of ethanol from sugarcane is no longer in question; in fact, the burning of sugarcane residues (bagasse) generates far more energy than needed to operate the ethanol plants, and many of them are now selling electric energy to the utilities. However, while there may be a positive net energy return at the moment, recent research suggests that the sugarcane plantations are not sustainable in the long run, as they are depleting the soil of nutrients and carbon matter[citation needed]

The picture is different for other regions, such as most of the United States, where the climate is too cool for sugarcane. In the U.S., agricultural ethanol is generally obtained from grain, chiefly corn. But it can also be obtained from cellulose, more energy balanced bioethanol.

[edit] Clean production bioethanol

Clean production bioethanol[citation needed] is a biofuel obtained using as much as possible non-greenhouse gas renewable energy sources:

  • the amount of energy directly consumed to make the ethanol is renewable energy : the tractor uses ethanol engine, biodiesel, air engine or electricity obtained from wind or solar energy.
  • the energy indirectly consumed, that can be solar energy.

To transport the biofuel to the fuel-stations can be used truck with ethanol engines or electric motors (that uses energy solar energy stored in the batteries).

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b Green Dreams J.K. Bourne JR, R. Clark National Geographic Magazine October 2007 p. 41 Article
  2. ^ Estimating the Net Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol Hosein Shapouri, James A. Duffield, and Michael S. Graboski Agricultural Economics Report No. (AER721) 24 pp, July 1995 www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aer721/
  3. ^ Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switchgrass, and Wood; Biodiesel Production Using Soybean and Sunflower David Pimentel and Tad W. Patzek Natural Resources Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, March 2005 doi:10.1007/s11053-005-4679-8 [http://petroleum.berkeley.edu/papers/Biofuels/NRRethanol.2005.pdf
  4. ^ Ethanol Can Contribute to Energy and Environmental Goals Alexander E. Farrell, Richard J. Plevin, Brian T. Turner, Andrew D. Jones, Michael O’Hare, Daniel M. Kammen 506 27 January 2006 vol 311 Science http://rael.berkeley.edu/ebamm/FarrellEthanolScience012706.pdf
  5. ^ http://www.ddgs.umn.edu/more.htm University of Minnesota
  6. ^ Corn-Based Ethanol Does Indeed Achieve Energy Benefits
  7. ^ The 2001 Net Energy Balance of Corn-Ethanol
  8. ^ Review of Corn Based Ethanol Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions
  9. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5353118.stm Biofuels look to the next generation
  10. ^ Hill, Jason; Nelson, Erik; Tilman, David; Polasky, Stephen; and Tiffany, Douglas (July 25 2006). "Environmental, economic, and energetic costs and benefits of biodiesel and ethanol biofuels". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103 (30): 11206-10. doi:10.1073/pnas.0604600103. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
  11. '^ Grass biofuels 'cut CO2 by 94% Reprted on bbc.co.uk http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7175397.stm
  12. ^ M. R. Schmer, K. P. Vogel, R. B. Mitchell, and R. K. Perrin Net energy of cellulosic ethanol from switchgrass PNAS published January 7, 2008, doi:10.1073/pnas.0704767105
  13. ^ DoE: Biomass Program: Net Energy Balance for Bioethanol Production and Use Quote: "...The most official study of the issue, which also reviews other studies, concludes that the "net energy balance" of making fuel ethanol from corn grain is 1.34...For cellulosic bioethanol—the focus of the Biomass Program—that study projects an energy balance of 2.62...A Biomass Program life-cycle analysis of producing ethanol from stover, now underway, is expected to show a very impressive net energy ratio of more than 5..."
  14. ^ Net Energy From the Extraction of Oil and Gas in the United States Cutler J. Cleveland http://www.bu.edu/cees/people/faculty/cutler/articles/Net_%20Energy_US_Oil_gas.pdf (pdf)

Wednesday, March 19, 2008

production cost of ethanol from tapioca is 9.51 Baht per litre.tapioca at 1.10 Baht per kilogram

The plant should have the output capacity of 500,000 litre per day.
The investment is 2,750 million Baht. The raw materials are sugar-cane and molasses, or tapioca. The best
locations with plenty of raw materials are Nakorn Rajasima, Kon Kaen, or Chaiyapum Province. The investor
should be the private sector while government agency such as Petroleum Authority of Thailand should also be
the shareholder in order to create confidence to the private investors and to help build networking
distribution to end-users.
production cost of ethanol from tapioca is 9.51 Baht per litre.
tapioca at 1.10 Baht per kilogram

As for the analysis on production cost, the breakeven point between the cost of raw materials and production
cost is calculated as
follows:
sugar-cane is priced at 550 Baht per ton, molasses at 1,250 Baht per ton, and tapioca at 1.10 Baht per
kilogram ( priced at ex factory) production cost of ethanol from sugar-cane and molasses is 9.51 Baht per
litre production cost of ethanol from tapioca is 9.51 Baht per litre.
The selling price should be 11 Baht per litre. The rate of return is 7.6% If the lending rate
can be reduced from 8% to 3% , the rate of return will become 9.8%
Comparing with benzin, the ethanol's selling price at 11 Baht per litre is higher than benzin
at 9 Baht per litre (ex refinery price).
Therefore, if the government wants to promote ethanol, the excise tax should be reviewed as well as Oil Fund
and Energy Conservation Fund. Furthermore, the government should be looking for other measures to make this
project feasible such as financing with low interest rate, official vehicles to use benzin mixed with
ethanol, setting up new Fund to stabilize ethanol price and push for the ethanol to be the additive in
increasing octane for vehicles instead of MTBE.

Recommendations
The feasibility of the project depends on the support from the government to improve, nullify
or remedy all the bottlenecks as
follows:
1 Regulations
According to the Announcement of Ministry of Commerce No. 1 (B.E.2541) dated 13 January 1998 regarding the
specifications of Benzin, the improvement is needed to allow ethanol to be mixed with benzin or gasohol, or
set up another particular specification for gasohol.
2 Taxation
The excise tax by The Ministry of Finance for unlead gas is 3.685 Baht and regulation under the Liquor Law
B.E. 2493 levied the tax for ethylalcohol for mix with oil at 0.1 % or 0.05 Baht per litre. Both contradict
each other in a sense that if benzin mixed with ethanol for sales as fuel will pay for excise tax at 3.685
Baht for both ethanol and benzin. Therefore, the taxation should be reviewed.
3 Contribution to the Fund
The Committee on National Energy Policy had set the contribution rate for Oil Fund at 0.45 Baht per litre for
benzin unlead octane 95 ,
0.25 Baht per litre for benzin unlead octane 91. Another
contribution rate for Energy Conservation Fund at 0.04 Baht
per litre for both benzin octane 95 and 91. This is another area to be reviewed.
4 Standards
There are two related industrial standards namely Ethanol Industrial Standards No.640-2533 and Gasohol
Industrial Standards No. 990-2533 which require some improvements. Besides, there should be industrial
standards on Diesel with Ethanol or Diesohol.
5 Privileges for Investment
The production wise, the machinery tax is waived, corporate tax is exempted for 8 years no matter where the
location site is, according to the current investment promotion. This privilege will greatly help boost the
investment.
The government should provide the following promotional measures :
1 The Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives should have growing scheme on sugar-cane and tapioca to meet the demand of ethanol production.
2 The Ministry of Finance should
consider the excise tax exemption for ethanol when mixed with benzin to make its price more competitive.
3 The Committee on National
Energy Policy should review the waive of contribution to Oil Fund and Energy Conservation Fund for gasohol.
4 The government should invest in
the production in the first phase as well as facilitate financing with low interest rate.
5 The government should have the
official vehicles used gasohol. For public, the government should campaign the use of gasohol.
6 The government should set up
new Fund to stabilize the price of ethanol.
7 The government should push for
the use of ethanol as additive to increase octane instead of MTBE.

To facilitate the implementatio n of this decentralised approac h, CIAT and CLAYUCA received fi nancial support from Colombia痴 m inistry of agriculture to estab lish in the second half of 2007 , a pilot plant for processing ethanol from cassava, swe

To facilitate the implementation of this decentralised approach, CIAT and CLAYUCA received financial support
from Colombia痴 ministry of agriculture to establish in the second half of 2007, a pilot plant for processing
ethanol from cassava, sweet potato and other sources of biomass. The plant痴 processing capacity will be 800
liters a day.

tapioca yielded 8-9% alcohol showing about 95% fermentation efficiency.

Article
Production of Ethanol from Tapioca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) S. Srikanta, M.Sc., (Food Tech.), S. A. Jaleel,
M.Sc. (Food Sci.), K.
R. Sreekantiah, Ph. D.

Discipline of Microbiology and Fermentation Technology, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore
570013, Abstract


Ethanol production from fresh tubers, flour and starch of tapioca was studied by simultaneous
saccharification and fermentation procedure. A 20% enzyme-liquefied slurry showed about 2-3% reducing sugars,
which increased to 10% on enzymic saccharification for 4h. Alcoholic fermentation of this hydrolysate with
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Var.
ellipsoideus, yielded 8-9% alcohol showing about 95% fermentation efficiency. Large scale fermentation of
tapioca flour by this process also showed fermentation efficiency of 90% thereby indicating the economic
viability of the process

High-efficiency dual-crop ethanol production to begin in Portugal

High-efficiency dual-crop ethanol production to begin in Portugal 20 February, 2008 A novel system for
turning sugar cane and sweet sorghum into ethanol and bioenergy will be tested on a commercial scale in
Portugal this year.
Lisbon-based Global Green is investing a C90m ($132m) in a plant at Idanha-a-Nova, Castelo Branco, which it
claims will operate more efficiently than conventional biofuel production plants. It will produce up to
60,000t/year of ethanol and 20MW of energy, as well as biomass byproducts.
The firm is planting varieties of sugar cane and sweet sorghum that it has developed especially to be
resistant to frost and able to survive in Mediterranean countries. By using a combination of two crops, the
plant can operate for 11 months of the year - much longer than comparable plants in Brazil, said Global
Green's Ashok Hansraj.
"This is the first trial of ethanol production in Europe from sugar cane grown in Europe," he told the
Bioenergy Europe 2008 conference, organised by Environmental Finance Publications, in London on Tuesday.
Using two crops maintains some degree of biodiversity, he added. The firm is also researching the use of
other biomass such as jatropha, rapeseed and algae, and is looking to use the multi-crop process in other
countries, including the US and China.
If the costs of the raw materials and processing are split between the ethanol and energy, Hansraj estimated
that the ethanol could be produced for about C0.25/litre. "This will give farmers a huge opportunity for
profit," he said.
"Furthermore, we also have an innovative technology to generate much more green electric power from any
biomass, giving output returns about triple any other conventional biomass-based power generation,"
he claimed

FAQ's-Fuel Ethanol

What is fuel ethanol?
Fuel ethanol or anhydrous alcohol is produced by dehydration of rectified spirit or extra neutral alcohol. Ethanol used as part of the fuel, by blending with petrol, for a motor vehicle is called fuel-ethanol.

How it is mixed in Petrol/Gasoline?
Ethanol could be blended in various proportions in petrol. Ethanol is usually added 5 to 10% by volume of petrol for such application. In Brazil, ethanol is added 24% by volume in gasoline (petrol).

How does it help in reducing pollution?
Use of ethanol in place of tetraethyl lead or MTBE which acts as anti-knocking agents will prevent dangerous and poisonous emissions containing lead or MTBE from petrol.

Will I have to change the engine of my Car?
Many states in the US have been using 10% ethanol blend in gasoline
(petrol) for use in their cars. Brazil has been using up to 24 % ethanol in petrol. Engines of cars do not need any change to use petrol with up to 24 % ethanol in it.

Will the engine of my vehicle get damaged?
Ethanol has, apart from carbon and hydrogen, oxygen in it. This oxygen acts as oxygenating agent during combustion in the IC engine of petrol cars, two-wheelers and three wheelers thus preventing formation of carbon monoxide. Gasoline with ethanol as anti-knocking agent will not cause any damage to the engine.

Can it be used in Two-wheelers/Three-wheelers without any change in vehicles?
Yes! Of course you can use gasoline in Two-Wheelers/Three-Wheelers as a normal fuel without changing the engine or any other things.





What are the functions of fuel ethanol?

Octane enhancement / anti-knocking agent

Oxygenating agent

Fuel extender / fuel replacement


Where it will be made available?
The oil Companies will blend the petrol/gasoline with fuel ethanol and this blended fuel will be made available through petrol/gas stations.



Can it be added in Diesel?
Ethanol is also added to diesel. Usually, 3% by volume is added. Tests have been conducted satisfactorily with up to 10% by volume addition.

Which are the other countries, which have promoted fuel ethanol?
Many states in the US have been using 10% ethanol blend in gasoline
(petrol) for use in their cars. Brazil has been using up to 24 % ethanol in petrol. Engines of cars do not need any change to use petrol with up to 24 % ethanol in it. Fuel ethanol programs have now been initiated in countries like Australia, Nepal, Columbia, Poland, Sweden etc.

What is the experience of countries who have promoted fuel ethanol?
Reduced oil imports, improved trade balance, reduced reliance on imported oil, increased ethanol production, more cane price to farmers, direct and indirect job opportunities, saving fossil fuels are some of the experiences.



What is E85? How do I know if my vehicle can use it?
E85 is fuel comprised of 85% ethanol / 15% unleaded gasoline for use in Flexible Fuel Vehicles(FFVs). These vehicles are truly flexible in that their owners have a choice whether to use E85, any blend of ethanol upto 85% level, or straight unleaded gasoline. On some models this comes as an option, and on some if is a standard feature.



Can my vehicle run on E85 even if it is not an FFV?
if your vehicle is not an FFV, use of any higher ethanol percentage than 10% is not covered by warranty.



What is ethanol made from?
While 1/3rd of world ethanol production is from corn, the rest is produced from suger based raw material like sugarcane juice/molasses or beet juice/molasses. There are other grains used in the production of ethanol which is rice, wheat, rye, dorghum or tubers like cassava / tapioca.



What is cellulosic ethanol?
Cellulosic biomass, holds tremendous promise as a feedstock for ethanol production due to its widespread availability and potential for high fuel yields.

Examples of sources for celluosic ethanol include corn stover (the stalks and husks left over after harvest), wheat and barley straw, sugarcane or rice bagasse, sawdust, paper pulp, small diameter trees and dedicated energy crops such as switch grass and other fast growing grasses. Study is still going in making cellulosic ethanol more viable. Praj is engaged in preliminary study leading to lab scale R & D.





How cellulosic ethanol made?
As with producing ethanol from grain, processing cellulosic sources extracts the fermentable sugars from the feedstock for distillation into alcohol. Unlike in grain, the sugars in cellulose are locked in complex carbohydrates called polysaccharides, or long chains of simple sugars. Separating these complex structures into fermentable sugars is essential to the efficient and economical production of cellulosic ethanol.

EcoMol Molecular Sieve Dehydration Plants by zeolite, vapor phase

EcoMol Molecular Sieve Dehydration Plants

As the demand for fuel ethanol grows, technology for production of fuel ethanol becomes critical. Some of the
key considerations while selecting the right technology would be:

How futuristic is the technology so that it will remain current for a long time and you will not be required
to upgrade it constantly

How does it build upon your current facilities so that your investment in fuel ethanol plant is minimal

Does it take care of your energy bill Can the technology handle a wide spectrum of raw materials

Is the technology robust Is it truly a clean technology , with no presence of entrainers like cyclohexane The
EcoMol Molecular Sieve Plants offers you comfort on all the above factors.

The EcoMol Pressure Swing Absorption technology offers the following advantages:

Constant product quality

Lowest Energy Consumption

Maximum Alcohol Recovery

High turndown ratio

Automation and Control system

Longer Life of desiccant


EcoMol : Why is it a better Technology? Fast de-pressurization of bed during regeneration may cause the bed
to fluidize, crushing the molecular sieve beads. The MolSieve bed offered by Praj is designed for gentle
movement, thus ensuring longer desiccant life. Depending on the requirement, Praj can supply skid mounted
units for smaller capacities which are easy to install.

There are two modules available for recovering the alcohol in the regeneration stream

Mapping Fuel-Ethanol Technologies

Conventionally, azeotropic distillation has been employed in production of Fuel-Ethanol. In azeotropic
distillation, dehydration is carried out in presence of entrainer like benzene or cyclohexane.
Although benzene has been banned in several countries for its carcinogenic effect, cyclohexane is still being
employed. The distillation method is very energy intensive. A large number of plants in Brazil still run on
this technology.

To bring down energy consumption and to ensure high level of dryness in final ethanol product, Molecular
Sieve (MolSieve) has proved to be ideal. Molecular Sieve is a synthetic adsorbent. It was introduced more
than a decade ago to dehydrate ethanol. Earlier systems operated in liquid phase and used thermal swing
regeneration process, which did not make them very energy efficient. Further development on the adsorbent saw
introduction of vapor phase operation with pressure swing regeneration system. This proved to be highly
energy-efficient.

The vapor phase pressure swing regeneration system employs Molecular Sieve beds which act as adsorbent. These
beds are made of zeolite with an effective pore size opening of about 3 Angstrom.

In order to understand the process of dehydration of ethanol, consider a column packed with freshly activated
Molecular Sieve. As rectified spirit (hydrated ethanol) vapor first enters the bed, water is diffused and
adsorbed within the pores of the adsorbent structure in a thin layer. As more alcohol enters the column, it
passes through this layer to slightly lower level where another incremental amount of water is adsorbed. This
continues until a point is reached where all possible water adsorption from this slug of alcohol is
accomplished.

Transfer of water from the vapor of rectified spirit to the Molecular Sieve occurs through a zone where water
(adsorbate) content is reduced from its inlet to its outlet concentration. This finite length of bed, where
the adsorbate transfer occurs, is known as the mass transfer zone. Two beds are provided in order to make the
process continuous.
Whilst the active bed is under pressure carrying our dehydration, the regeneration bed is under vacuum. The
shift of operation (swing) from one bed to another is controlled with help of control valves and automation.

FW: Praj, india, ethanol plant stock

Milestones in the Journey of PRAJ

1984/85:

Inception of PRAJ. Beginning of PRAJ's journey into Agro-based process industry.

Ist Opportunity comes from a Sugar Mill in India.

1986

Praj develops SPRANNIHILATOR, a zero-pollution system for treatment of distillery effluents. The system was subsequently given an award for innovative concept.

1987/88

Praj, one of the first Companies to receive Venture Capital from ICICI (now ICICI Ventures).

1989/91

To further its commitment to the Ethanol industry Praj set up an R & D Center dedicated to ethanol production. Recognized by Govt. of India, DSIR, this center is equipped with analytical and instrumental laboratory and fermentation, distillation and effluent treatment pilot plants.

Praj makes futher inroads into other states of India.

1991/93

Praj undertakes in-house development of Non-molasses (Starch based) technology and engineering for grains and tubers in 1993.

Molasses decontrolled in India. Industry goes through challenging times. Grain based distilleries being looked at favorably. Praj develops dual route system for cane molasses and grains.

At the same time, Praj also drew up plan to diversify into synergistic fields like Brewery Engineering and plate heat exchangers which would make Praj a full Service Company for technology, process equipment and systems for industries it directly served.

1993/95

Going Public and Listing on the Stock Exchanges in India, which was oversubscribed 7 times.

Praj decides to spread its presence in the international market.
Establishes a hub for the ASEAN and the Far East in Singapore.

The first international order from Indonesia for multi-pressure distillation was contracted, incorporating the patented self-cleaning Flubex evaporator for concentration of distillery spent-wash.

Major order from the Philippines amidst global competition was contracted for multi route plants. Praj continues to score in the South East Asian Markets.

1996/99

Praj restructures to focus on its primary lines like ethanol technology and equipment, wastewater treatment and brewery engineering.

Praj commissions several grain based ethanol plants in India.

1999/00

Praj ventures into South America in 2000. An office set up in Bogota, Colombia to reach out to South, Central America and Caribbean and partner customers in the region.

In the Year 2000, Praj manufacturing facility awarded the ISO 9002 and the prestigious ASME U & H stamps for pressure vessels and heating boilers.

Fuel Ethanol, the new driving force in the ethanol industry, has been gaining in its share of motor fuel not only in the Americas where over 60% of fuel ethanol is produced, but also in Australia, Thailand and in India.

Energy saving multi-pressure distillation systems, introduced by Praj, become an Industry Standard.

Praj bags technology & engineering orders in South America and the Caribbeans.

2000/02

Praj collaborates for Vapor Phase Molecular Sieve Dehydration plants, for production of Fuel grade ethanol.

The first MSDH plant in India went on stream in May 02.

Praj enters into East European Market with engineering order for a grain-based plant.

Praj launches Multi-feed & Multi-product Ethanol technology for round the year distillery operation.

Application engineering completed for Cane juice and Sugar Beet to ethanol process technology.

Praj bags an order for Multi-feed & multi-product plant in Maharashtra, for Vaidyanath SSK Limited.

2002/04

Praj Enters Australian Market with First technology and engineering order for green-field Fuel ethanol production plant

Launch of Matrix 蔓 The Innovation Center for advanced applied research in the field of ethanol and brewing process.

Praj opens three new offices overseas  Johannesburg, Bangkok and Sharjah.

Praj commissions South East Asia痴 first Secondary Juice to Ethanol Plant at Vaidyanath SSK, Pangri, Maharashtra.

Praj is Gold Sponsor to World Ethanol Conference an Annual worldwide yearly conference in London.(2003)

Praj participates in the National Planning Commissions Policy on Biofuels.

Praj develops Sweet Sorghum to Ethanol process.

Praj helps with 1200-1400 acres of pilot cultivation of Sweet Sorghum in India. Trials completed in Australia also.

Praj attains leadership in fuel ethanol plants in India with over 70% marketshare.

Praj crosses the 1 billion turnover mark.

Received 6 major orders for fuel ethanol in South/Central America.
Establishes lead over Brazilian & European Technology Companies in South America.

Praj received ICORE award for the leadership in Biofuels.

Praj痴 Chairman received Distinguished Alumnus Award from IIT, Mumbai.

Praj commissions a unique wastewater treatment plant in Colombia. This technology was developed inhouse.

Praj is Lead (Platinum) Sponsor to World Ethanol Conference an Annual worldwide yearly conference in London.(2004)


2005

Praj commissions two large size ethanol plants in Colombia.

DSIR honors Praj for exports in in-house R&D based technology.

Exclusive Export Oriented Unit (EOU) established.

Brewery Manufacturing facility near Pune (Sanaswadi, Unit-2) acquired.

Praj acquires worldwide rights for Molecular Sieve based dehydration technology from Delta-T.

ICRA certified Praj as A1+ category company for short term finance.

ESOP (Employees Stock Option Plan) declared.

Praj was the Lead (Platinum) sponsor for World Ethanol Event (2005) for second consecutive year.

2006

All five large sized ethanol plants in Colombia on stream for commercial production from March 2006 onwards.

Breakthrough in European Market  receives contract from British Sugars.

Breakthrough in US market. Receives two major contracts to install large size ethanol plants.

Praj expands R&D Center.

Venture Capitalist Vinod Khosla and Marubeni Corporation invests in Praj.

Export Oriented Unit established in Markal near Pune.

Praj inks alliance with Meura for High Performance Brewery Mash Filters Praj expands Brewery Business.

Praj Bio-ethanol Technology for Belgium for Suedzucker Group Company, Biowanze.

Skid Mounted Ethanol Plant designed, manufactured and shipped to CSR Australia.

Breakthrough in the USA market.

Praj Industries and Aker Kvaerner forge a bio-ethanol alliance in Europe.

Praj acquires US Engineering Company - C.J. Schneider Inc.

2007

Chairman, Praj Industries conferred 前utstanding Innovation award by Chemtech Foundation.

Praj receives order from Danisco Group Company, Anklam Bioethanol in Germany.

Praj Industries announces strong results, growth plans; Declares 1:1 Bonus.

Praj and Aker Kvaerner JV company established (BioCnergy Europa B.B.) in The Netherlands.

Aker Kvaerner and Praj win contract for world-scale bioethanol project in the UK for BP-Dupont-Associated British Foods.

Praj received orders to install Cassava based plants in Thailand.

Praj Q1 total income grows by 70%; Profit grows by 90% over corresponding period; Order Intake from new geographies.

5th Manufacturing facility in Kandla (SEZ), India commissioned for bioethanol and biodiesel manufacturing units.

Praj opens office in Brazil.

Praj launches its Biodiesel business.

Technology For Production Of Ethanol

The technology for manufacture of ethanol (dehydrated/Anhydrous
Alcohol) involves special processing of alcohol/rectified spirit.
There are three commercial routes for the manufacture of dehydrated Ethanol from rectified spirit/ alcohol. These are as follows

Azeotropic Distillation Technology
*Molecular Sieve Technology*
Membrane Technology


Azeotropic Distillation Technology

The technology for ethanol production from rectified spirit using azeotropic distillation is well established in India as a number of plants exist in the country based on this technology. This technology involves a distillation system employing benzene as the third component has been in use in India since World War II.


The initial capital cost (project cost) for this technology is lower than the molecular sieve technology but the cost of production is higher because of higher energy consumption and higher consumption of benzene or other similar third component such as cyclohexane. It is essential to mention here that the third component may cause air pollution as well as water pollution especially components such as benzene are known to be highly carcinogenic.

Molecular Sieve Technology

This is the most commercially popular, financially viable and environmentally friendly technology, which has emerged, in the late 1980s. This is a clean technology in which the water is removed by molecular sieves and dehydrated alcohol/ethanol is obtained. The dehydration process using this technology can be carried out either in liquid phase or vapour phase. For smaller plants and for removing less water content liquid phase technology is adequate and is often used.
Smaller plants using this liquid phase have been set up in the past.
However, for larger plants where ethanol is being used for blending with petrol, the globally preferred technology is based on vapour phase dehydration of ethanol.


In this technology, although, the capital cost is higher than azeotropic distillation, the cost of production is lower. Another major advantage is that it does not cause any pollution especially water pollution, as is the case with azeotropic distillation technology, in which case, benzene and other toxic chemicals pose a health hazard.

Membrane technology

Membrane technology has not been successful at commercial scale as the cost of membrane is high and its life is reported to be very short.
This leads to high cost of production. However, technologies using newer type of membranes which will have a relatively longer life, and therefore lower cost of production, are reported to be under development in developed countries. This technology does not have a proven track record yet.

Raw Materials/Substrates



Alcohol can be manufactured from a large number of raw materials, which fall into three main categories



Sugar based



Starch based



Cellulose based


Sugar Based

In this category the main crops are sugar cane (sugar cane juice & molasses), sugar beet (beet juice and molasses), sweet sorghum,

Starch Based

All types of grain including wheat, rice, corn (maize), barley, malt, millet etc. are included in this. In addition, tubers such as potatoes, cassava (tapioca) etc. are also starch based.

Cellulose Based

This category includes agro-waste, agro- residues, bagasse, rice husk, straw, groundnut shells, wood chips, sawdust, organic municipal waste etc.

Currently, Argonne National Laboratory calculates that it takes 740,000 Btu of fossil fuels to make 1 million Btu of energy from ethanol using corn

Badger State Ethanol (BSE) is one of the 97 biomass-feedstock ethanol plants built in the U.S. as of 2006.
Based in Monroe, Wis., BSE has produced ethanol from corn since 2002. BSE痴 plant uses a dry mill process in
which the starch in the corn is hydrolyzed into sugar and then fermented into alcohol. The major steps in the
dry mill process
are: milling, liquefaction, saccharification, fermentation, distillation, dehydration and denaturing.